時間：2023-02-28 15:57:46
引言：易發表網憑借豐富的文秘實踐，為您精心挑選了九篇口語交際能力論文范例。如需獲取更多原創內容，可隨時聯系我們的客服老師。
為了提高學生聽說能力，小學語文課提供了許多口語訓練的素材和形式。因此，可以充分利用課文的優勢，構建口語交際模式的閱讀課。經過探討，我總結了以說為主線的模式：預習自說──朗讀仿說──討論互說──總結評說。
1．預習自說。閱讀總建立在學生對課文預習的基礎上，而預習情況反饋，提供了交流學情空間，拓展新知。應讓學生自說預習中讀懂了哪些，還有哪些疑難。
2．朗讀仿說。閱讀課就是教師指導下的讀書課，訓練任何一種語言能力都離不開讀，特別是“對話”可讓學生自選角色朗讀，讀中感悟真情。通過模仿表演反復訓練，自然提高口語表達能力。
3．討論互說。閱讀是一種個性色彩極強的活動，通過對課文感知，學生有了“第一印象”，教師放手讓學生解疑問難，小組討論，交流匯報，學生暢談對課文的理解，創造樂說、會說、能說的氛圍。
4．總結評說。閱讀教學中對問題探究，課文朗讀，習題訓練等都要指導小結評說。讓學生在分析、梳理、歸納的思維訓練中培養口語表達的具體性，嚴密性，提高表達的水平。值得注意的是要給足時間，讓學生盡情傾吐內心的感受，實現同學間的信息溝通與啟迪。
這一教學模式把閱讀和聽說融為一體，學生說中感知課文，說中感悟課文，讀中積累語言，說中品析課文，真正學會語言。
二、開展活動，創設口語交際的氛圍
學生在實踐活動中進行動手、觀察、體驗、想象、創新。開展活動，能豐富口語交際的內容，掌握口語交際的方法技巧，提高聽、說、交往的能力。
1．引導“玩”中說。學生的自我表述只有在自由自在的空間才得以孕育、誕生。如《踩氣球真有趣》活動課，讓學生在草地圍圈而坐，藍天白云，綠樹草地，鳥鳴蟬叫，孩子們回到大自然的境界里，進入最佳氛圍，學生互相追逐，出現許多不同的有趣場面。這時引導學生自主看說，選擇觀察對象，攝取說的素材；生生互評，師生互評（評語言，評內容，評儀態）。這種自由、和諧、愉快的氛圍成了學生表現自我的最佳“土壤”。
2．引導“做”中說。凡學生自己經歷或親手做的事，說起來總是那么繪聲繪色，感情豐富。如《比比誰的手巧》活動課，課前讓學生利用廢棄材料自制小作品，做做說說；課中介紹作品，互相評說；課后開展銷會，產品推銷，創設交際過程。
3．引導“議”中說。教師根據訓練要求，設計話題，讓學生根據話題，發表看法。提出見解，如上《我心中的老師》口語交際課，可設計：①創設情境，激發說趣；②老師示范，提出要求；③小組討論，相互介紹；④相互采訪，自由評議。
三、關注社會，尋找口語交際的源頭
生活是口語訓練的主要源泉。因此，教師要主動幫助學生巧搭“說”的舞臺，創設富有時代感和濃郁的生活情趣的語境，讓學生在多姿多彩的“舞臺’沖，觀察表達。如開展“愛”的系列口語交際活動可作如下設計：
系列一：《愛我家庭，從真做起》說話課，以學生孝敬長輩為材料進行同桌互說，匯報評說，培養學生關心長輩的真情。
系列二：設計《愛我校園，從小做起》說話課，以學生做好事為材料進行練說，激發學生愛校的情感。課前開展“我們的校園我們愛”的活動，課中分小組匯報交流自己所見所聞。同時在別人說話中參與評價，最后去采訪做好事的同學。從而使口語交際成為交流心得，增進情感的教育活動。
系列三：開展“愛我環境，從近做起”調查活動。讓學生參與社會實踐活動，了解家鄉環境的污染情況，明確環保重要性。
課前閱讀有關環境知識書報，使學生心有環境。并按水源、空氣、居民小區三方面調查記錄。課中以水源為例，明確說話要求，先說污染，再說危害，最后說想法，同桌互說，鞏固要求。然后分組自由討論“空氣”和“居民小區”的情況。課后延伸，進行跟蹤調查，做“環保小衛士”，評選“環保小衛士”。這樣讓學生調查社會、多角度觀察，學生紛紛把改造家鄉環境的想法說出來。
四、展開想象，拓展口語交際的視野
（一）豐富學生的聽
一是采用全英教學模式。教師要少用甚至是不用漢語進行教學，要知道學習英語的最大干擾來自于母語，對母語非英語的學生來說，他們已經習慣了母語的思維方式，很容易會將這些母語思維方式帶到英語的學習中來。為此，在教學中我們要盡量用英語教學，為學生營造全基的學習環境，這樣才能最大限度地避開母語的干擾，學會用英語來進行思維。二是利用現代技術播放地道的英語音頻與視頻。我們可以利用現代信息技術的聲像效果來為學生播放一些通俗易懂的英文歌曲、經典的影視劇片斷以及一些英語類節目等，讓學生能夠接觸到更多原汁原味的英語。通過大量的聽來增強學生的語感，豐富學生的語言素材。
（二）展開大量的讀
“書讀百遍，其義自現”“熟讀唐詩三百首，不會作也會吟。”指出了讀的重要作用，這同樣適用于英語教學中學生口語水平的提高。讀是語言輸出與輸入一體化，既可以在讀中豐富語言素材，為學生的說打下堅實的基礎。同時也是一種主要的說話訓練方式，可以在讀中增強語感，幫助學生糾正不正確的發音，讓學生在讀中來增強流暢性與完整性，感受不同的語氣與語調。這既是提高學生口語水平的前提條件，同時也是提高的主要途徑。為此，在教學中我們要帶領學生開展豐富的讀，如全班讀、分角色讀、同桌對話朗讀等，讓學生進行大量的閱讀教材，對于精彩的段落與篇章，要讓學生達到熟讀成誦的效果。這樣長期堅持，可以讓學生積累更多的詞匯、語法、句型等，讓學生擁有更為豐富的語言素材，同時在讀中來提高對語言的感知與駕馭能力，這無疑是提高學生英語水平的核心因素。
二、豐富訓練，讓學生進行更多的說
正所謂“紙上得來終覺淺，方知此事要躬行。”多聽多讀，增大學生的語言輸入量，豐富學生的語言素材，并不直接代表著學生口語水平的提高。學生口語水平最終需要在大量的口語訓練活動中得到不斷的強化與提高。為此在教學中我們除了為學生構建全英學習環境，用英語教學，并鼓勵學生用英語外，還要為學生設計豐富的口語訓練活動，讓學生有更多說的機會，在大量的訓練中來內化知識、提高水平。
（一）表演情景劇
初中生有著強烈的表演欲望，我們可以利用學生的這一特點，選取教材中適合學生表演的話題以及學生所熟悉的話題，來引導學生創編情景劇，并進行表演。這樣的活動即創作、表演與說話訓練于一體，不僅可以激發學生強烈的參與動機，而且可以讓學生將語言的學習與運用與具體的場景、人物等結合起來，這樣更加利于提高學生對語言的駕馭能力，利于學生英語水平的整體提高。如問路、打電話、購物、就診、聚會、訪友、旅游等等，都是學生所熟悉的話題，同時也是語言學習的重要內容。我們可以引導學生圍繞著這些話題來進行情景劇表演，讓學生在表演中運用，在運用中內化，這正是提高學生口語水平的重要活動形式。
（二）課前自由談話
我們要利用好課前導入環節的時間，可以選取學生所感興趣的話題來引導學生展開自由談話。這樣的交流形式更靈活，氛圍更活躍，更能激起全體學生參與的激情。此時再加以教師必要的引導，自然就可以讓學生在輕松愉悅的談話中來進入新知的學習。談話導入既避免了直接教學的枯燥無味，可以增強教學的趣味性，激發學生學習興趣，而且也為學生提供了一個可以自由交流的空間，學生可以展開積極而自由的對話，這同樣是一種極為重要的口語訓練方式。
（三）組建課外小組
引導學生自由結組，以充分利用豐富的課余時間來開展豐富的口語課外活動。如建立英語廣播站，開展辯論賽、組織口語大賽等。其活動更為豐富，可以讓學生有更多的聽說訓練機會，而且這些活動深受學生的喜愛，學生的參與積極性非常高。在課余時間總是能看到學生參與的身影，這樣既實現了教學面對全體，全面參與，同時也可以讓學生享受口語交流的樂趣，從而讓學生更加樂于參與、樂于交流。
三、結語
【關鍵詞】口語交際；培養策略隨著社會的發展，口語交際能力日益得到人們的重視。《語文課程標準》提出：“語文是工具性和人文性的統一。而語文是最重要的交際工具，應當培養學生具有日常口語交際的基本能力，在各種交際活動中，學會傾聽、表達與交流，初步學會文明地進行人際溝通和社會交往，發展合作精神。”可見口語交際能力是現代公民的必備能力。要求我們培養學生傾聽、表達和應對的能力，使學生具有文明和諧進行人際交流的素養。
1以身作則，充分發揮教師的示范作用
口語交際活動是由說者和聽者雙方的活動構成的，在教學過程中老師的示范作用是非常重要的。我們在備課時不僅備教材，還考慮話怎么說，詞怎么用，手勢怎么用。教學過程中，我們同時兼顧聽和說雙方，只要不是我擔任說話者，我就以聽者的身份出現，與學生一起參與聽話訓練，用自己集中注意力聽話，迅速地做好記錄，及時做好良好的反應等良好的表現給學生做榜樣。同時，我還認真觀察說和聽的雙方活動，注意巡視學生聽說情況，發現說話者語速偏快或偏慢，聲音偏高或偏低，姿態、表情不自然，都要以恰當的方式及時指出，讓學生作出調整。老師規范化的語言是學生學習的規范化語言的表率。老師的一舉一動都成為學生模仿的對象。因此，當我擔任說話者時，我很注意自身語言的準確性和規范化，語言簡潔、生動，表達清楚明白，努力在口語規范化和口頭表達的技巧上發揮示范作用。這樣學生聽多了，聽慣了就會把我們老師的語言化為自己的語言，起到潛移默化的作用。
2創設情境，激發口語交際的興趣
我們知道，興趣是最好的老師。一個人無論干什么，只要有興趣，便有了自覺性。進行口語交際訓練也是如此。激發學生的興趣，就等于激發學生的自覺性，這便成功了一半。創設情境，是激發學生口語交際興趣的重要途徑。創設情境的方法很多。
首先，老師生動的語言，便可以創設一個引人入勝的情境，使學生的大腦里充滿神奇的想象，欲罷不能，豐富的想象使他們想說，爭著要說。比如，《倔強的小》的教學中，讓學生閉上眼睛，那凄涼艱難的聲音伴隨著老師生動的語言描繪，使行軍過草地時勇敢面對困境不畏犧牲的情景再現在學生的腦海，學生猶如身臨其境，豐富的想象使學生爭著訴說，變“要我說”為“我要說”。閱讀教學變得生動活潑，學生的口語交際能力得到了訓練，又培養了學生創造性想象能力。
其次，現代化教學媒體的運用，為學生營造一個身臨其境的場景，使學生有話想說。現代化教學媒體的運用，是創設情境的重要手段，它直觀形象，幫助我們生動地再現了情境，達到其他教學手段無法達到的效果。如在教學《鯨》中，我把齒鯨和須鯨的動畫圖像利用電腦屏幕投影出來，齒鯨和須鯨怎樣呼吸的樣子就歷歷在目。學生興趣盎然，爭相介紹它們是怎樣呼吸的，說得活靈活現，口語交際能力得到了培養。
另外，開展豐富多彩的活動，把表演、游戲、角色扮演等引進課堂，營造一個生動活潑的語言環境，提高口語交際的興趣。例如，《濫竽充數》這寓言具體故事性和趣味性。我在教學之后，讓學生把“南郭先生逃走后會怎么樣”來續寫這個故事，寫好后再修改，再讓學生上講臺說故事，看誰編得好，講得好。學生通過親身參與了講故事，積極性特別高，說得也特別好。
3堅持上好口語交際課，教給學生口語交際的方法和技巧
根據新大綱，人教社對教材進行了修改。“口語交際”訓練成了小學教材的重要組成部分且自成體系，很多基礎訓練都安排了口語交際訓練，內容豐富，形式活潑，有些還有插圖，每次訓練還精心設計了問題或有提示，體現了每次口語交際訓練的主題，明確提出了訓練的內容和要求。在教學中我們充分發揮了教材的優勢，堅持上好口語交際課。每次上課，我們都緊靠教材內容引導學生先觀察插圖或是看清要求，然后再講述。同時我們還十分重視課前準備，如收集資料，觀察動植物，或是自己先參加相關的活動。而在口語交際課上，則根據口語交際的不同內容，創設交際的情境。如：生活展現情景、圖畫再現情景、音樂渲染情境、表演體會情境。我們也盡量做到看說結合，聽說結合，演說結合，并做到點面結合，人人互動，生與生說，師與生說，在訓練過程中注意每個學生的語言、態度、情感等方面的表現，相機指導。訓練中，重聽重評，讓學生明白：認真聽別人說話，既是對別人的尊重，也是對自己聽話、辨析能力的訓練，還能給自己的說話有一定的啟發。在聽說的基礎上，我們還根據信息反饋的情況及時評價。評價時可以教師評，也可以學生自評，學生互評，說后評，評后再說，努力使說話更趨完整、貼切，努力提高學生口語交際能力。
4開展豐富多彩的課內外活動，提高口語交際能力
1. 口語交際與識字教學相結合 “一字開花”，豐富學生詞匯積累。句以詞為基礎，詞以字為單位，要進行聽說訓練，首先學生要有一定的詞匯儲備。一字開花，就是為更好地進行說的訓練打好基礎。如，教“中” 字，先讓學生擴出詞：中國、中央、中間、心中、中心等，然后啟發學生用這些詞說話。如：“中、中國、我是中國人。我的祖國是中國。中國是一個偉大的國家。心中：我的心中裝著一個小秘密。媽媽的心中最愛的人是我。祖國在我的心中”等。無論學生怎么說，只要他說得有道理，語句通順，都應予以肯定。
敘述方法，訓練學生口語表達。識字教學要與發展思維、發展語言相結合。在識字教學過程中，教師要指導學生用已有的知識自學，并有意識地引導學生用語言敘述自己自學的方法和結果，訓練學生的表達能力。如，學習“告”字：先讓學生自學，用自己喜歡的方式識記；再讓學生交流識字方法，有的學生說“我是用熟字加一部分的方法學習的，告字上面是牛字一豎不露尾，下面加個口”，有的學生說“我是先把上面一部分拆開成一撇和一個土字，下面加個口”，還有的學生說“我覺得我的辦法比他們的還好，我是用編字謎的方法來學習的，謎語是：一口咬掉牛尾巴”。學生在說方法的過程中，相互啟發、補充，語言能力在無形之中得到了提高。
2. 關注生活，利用一切機會練習口語交際 語文學習的外延和生活的外延大致相當。生活是口語交際的內容，口語交際是生活中必不可少的一種交際工具，豐富多彩的生活給口語交際提供了源頭活水。教師要善于捕捉現實生活中的精彩畫面，創設口語交際的情境，利用一切機會，對學生進行口語交際訓練。
對話是人們在日常生活中最基本的說話方式，是人們運用口頭語言進行交際的主要形式之一，說話具有即時性。學生在校最多的空余時間就是課間，所以，教師可以引導學生在課間交流中，要求學生對每一個話題的表述都盡量做到說流利、有條理、說準確，并注意選擇恰當的對話方式，形成良好的訓練氛圍和說話習慣，進行對話訓練。久而久之，學生就會在對話中不斷糾正錯誤，提高說話質量。優秀的電影、電視節目，學生都非常喜歡觀看，教師可從學生愛看的電影、電視節目中找到切入口，通過多種形式，進行說話訓練。如《西游記》是人人喜歡看的電視劇，在學生觀看后，我組織他們說說劇中的精彩情節，訓練學生說話的條理性、準確性；對劇中空白的情節進行想象說話；有時讓學生轉述節目的主要內容；我還組織了一次“《西游記》人物評論會”，學生的說話具有較強的針對性、層次性，收到良好的訓練效果。此外，孩子們感興趣的動畫片、電影，都是學生進行口語訓練的好題材。這樣的說話訓練，學生能在愉快的氣氛中，既回顧了電影、電視節目的內容，豐富了知識儲備，又使學生的口頭表達能力得到了訓練，一舉多得，是可以經常性、長期進行訓練的好方式。
3. 創設和諧氛圍――讓學生大膽交流 融洽的人際關系、真誠的情感交流、和諧的心理氛圍是保證口語交際順利進行的關鍵。因此，我們積極倡導人人互愛、人人平等的綠色環境，積極倡導師生平等、人人平等的學習公平理念，構建民主、平等、和諧、理解、雙向的師生關系，提高教師的親和力。因為，學生只有在感覺到安全的情況下，才會大膽地與他們交流。而讓學生感到心理安全的前提是在與同學、與老師的口語交流中是平等的。因此，教師要充分利用自己的非權利影響力，以身作則，以平等的姿態參與口語交際，為學生們口語交際提供樣板，引導學生平等、信任、互助地交際。
關鍵詞：初中語文 口語交際 素質教育 教育創新 教學方法
口語是人類最主要、最直接的交流工具，也是初中教育尤其是初中語文教育要著力培養的學生能力。由于片面地追求分數，大量地使用網絡，加之獨生子女政策、現代通信手段的發展等，中學生口語表達能力弱化已經成為了教育界及社會普遍關注的問題。本文筆者擬結合自己這幾年強化初中語文教學中口語交際能力培養的一些做法和體會，就如何進一步認識口語交際能力培養的特點、意義和存在問題，如何抓住重點實施初中生口語交際能力培養，如何采取措施保障這一工作得到不斷加強，作一些梳理，僅供同仁們參考。
一、初中生口語交際的特點、重要性及存在的問題
初中生從小學走來，向青年遞進，在其生理趨向成熟的同時，心理上的自我意識也會越來越強，講話開始更多注意自己的形象，怕講不好丟面子、挨批評，有意地選用其他“不講話的方式”表達意見。學生思維能力急速增長后，外在的語言表達能力，尤其是口語表達能力往往跟不上思維表達的需要，要么有東西說不出來，要么說出來的不是要說的東西，碰到不熟的環境、不相識的人，更加緊張，甚至表達得語無倫次。越是感到自己沒說好，就越不想說，形成惡性循環，使得如今不少初中生寧愿通過網絡、短信等表達，也不想大聲地說話，這將直接影響到他們今后的學習與成長。
口語表達是一個人思維活動最直接、最迅速的反映，口語訓練本身也是以思維力為核心的智力訓練。它能有效地培養學生思維的條理性、嚴密性、敏捷性、靈活性，有助于培養學生穩定的注意力、敏銳的觀察力、持久的記憶力和豐富的想象力。有統計表明，人們在日常生活中的語言應用，聽占45% ，說占30%，讀占16%，寫占9%。也就是說，聽與說占了人與人之間交流的75%，如果不善口語表達，一個人的事業和人生都會因此而打相應的折扣。初中生開始有基本的思想，基本的社會交往，說的基本能力也主要形成于這個時候。在初中語文教學中充分激發學生說的積極性和主動性，提高學生“說”的能力，至關重要。
目前，應試教育的問題在初中教學中依然嚴重，只有筆試沒有口試，多數初中生口語交際能力不盡如人意，不少人心中有話不敢說，一說話就顯得面紅耳赤，結結巴巴。甚至三年初中都從無機會登臺亮相當眾發言，機會越少越不會說。一些同仁把教材中安排的口語交際練習，作為課外作業布置給學生自己去做，使口語交際教學流于形式。極個別同仁以自己的“出口成章”要求學生伶牙俐齒，對發言表述不流暢或含糊不清加以指責，也大大挫傷了學生“說”的積極性。
二、初中生口語交際能力培養的重點是激發興趣、訓練提高和技巧傳授
初中語文教學無論是素質教育，還是應試教育，任務都相當繁重。培養學生的口語交際能力應當融入其中，突出重點，有序推進，既不能流于形式，也不能影響其他教學任務的完成。筆者在這幾年的實踐過程中主要抓了以下三個方面。
一是努力激發學生的口語交際興趣。興趣是成功的一半。初中生心智還沒有完全成熟，更需要以興趣支撐學習。調動初中生的口語交際興趣，教師應注意從他們思想解放，活潑開朗，有較強的參與意識，渴望展示自我，實現自我價值的特點出發，多開展一些表演活動，讓學生在表演的過程中用口語把自己所學所想充分表達出來。教師要特別注意熱情引導和寬松環境的重要性，讓學生心態開放，大膽自信，無拘無束地開口說話，不要怕他們說錯、說少、說亂、說重復，要鼓勵他們多說、“瞎說”、不同地說。這幾年，只要課堂任務相對不緊，我都會在一節課中安排至少三分鐘，輪流讓一組學生就自己“想說的故事、想講的新聞趣事”進行口語表演，平均每個學生每周至少說一兩次，主要讓學生講所見所聞，介紹事情經過，發表自己的想法，起到了比較明顯的效果。這樣，堅持一兩個學期就能夠讓一些原本張口就結的學生完整地說上一兩分鐘。
二是刻意加強學生的口語交際訓練。人人天生會說話，口語交際本不難。之所以變成了問題，是因為我們的人為阻隔，因此我認為，初中生口語交際能力培養的過程就是解放他們說話權的過程，就是訓練他們恢復說話本能的過程。訓練的方式，包括：1.朗讀訓練。教師一定要堅持每課的朗讀，可以全班讀、分組讀、個人讀，通過讀來培養學生的語感，來保證字正腔圓。2.背誦訓練。這對學生學習與掌握好普通話具有相當重要的意義，尤其是整體背誦時音最高、讀書氣氛濃，學生記憶快，有助于提高學生的口語表達能力。3.問答訓練。教師要精心設計問題，有意識地選擇學生回答問題，讓學生經認真思考后能答出來、答得多，要根據問題的難易程度，請學習成績不同、口頭表達能力不同的學生來回答。4.口語比賽。對于口語水平低的學生，教師可以進行朗讀比賽，成語及短語接龍比賽；對于口語水平高的學生，教師可以出一些即興題目，如談社會熱點問題的看法等。
三是積極引導學生的口語技巧積累。口語表達也是一門學問，其中有許多技巧需要在實踐不斷積累。初中是有意識掌握這門學問的開始，教師要更加重視基本技巧的日積月累。教師要引導口語表達不理想的學生向能說會道的學生學習，總結后者的特點供前者模仿趕超。教師要通過聽課文錄音、名人演講等方式，剖析他們的斷句、節奏、表情、輕重音處理等技巧，并一一解說給學生，讓初中生充分知道口語交際不是簡單地說說而已，也大有技巧可學。教師還要特別注意讓學生在辯論中提高技巧，鼓勵初中生抓住機會反駁別人的觀點，引導他們為了辯倒對方而不斷提高技巧。
三、初中生口語能力培養要有力而為，有心而為，有的而為
初中生口語交際能力培養是長期工程，要貫穿于初中語文教學的始終。能不能持之以恒地實施下去，取決于教師的口語教學能力和意志。作為初中語文教師，我們要盡可能接受系統的、專業的口語交際培訓或口語專項訓練，從理論層面上對口語交際有清晰、全面、透徹的認識和理解。在掌握業務的基礎上，教師要帶頭說普通話，要求學生發言必須用普通話，鼓勵學生態度大方，口齒清楚，清晰簡潔地表達自己的意思，微笑著認真傾聽哪怕是最差的口語表達。教師還要將口語交際訓練與考試掛鉤，通過讓學生或介紹自己的學習情況，或總結本期學習，或講一個小故事等，重視自己的口語交際能力培養，區分優、良、及格、不及格等成績并通知家長，爭取家長支持共同提升初中生的口語表達能力。在有力、有心的基礎上，學校還應加強學生和教師口語交際訓練結果的評價，適當地獎優勵先，調動教師和學生的積極性，使口語交際在初中語文教學中保持并不斷贏得其應有的地位。
參考文獻：
[1]曹維菊.初中語文教學中學生口語表達能力的培養[J].學周刊：A，2013（1）.
[2]劉海濤.淺談如何在初中語文教學中培養學生的口語表達能力[J].中國校外教育：上旬，2012（10）.
摘 要
近年來，隨著我國改革開放的發展和我國與國際間的經濟、科技、文化交流日益頻繁，人們越來越重視外國文化問題。同時，我們也逐漸認識到了了解外國文化在對外交往中的重要性。在教育領域中，外語教學也漸漸重視對學生交際能力的培養。然而，對許多老師而言，文化教學還是一個較新的概念，從跨文化角度對英語教學進行研究探討在目前還是個新領域。我們必須認識到交際能力的培養是外語教學的主要目標，培養學生跨文化交際的技能是中學外語教學要達到的一個目標。文化教學在中學英語教學中的重要性不可忽視，英語學習者不了解英語國家的文化，就無法獲得交際能力。因此在中學英語口語教學中應該目標明確地，循序漸進地，方法得當地導入文化教學，使英語學習者在學習語言和知識的同時受到文化的熏陶，在跨文化交際中游刃有余。
關鍵詞： 跨文化交際；文化教學；中學英語口語教學
ABSTRACT
Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.
Keywords：Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. the concept of intercultural communication 3
2.1 Literature review 3
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4
3.A survey based on classroom observations 7
3.1 The analysis of interviews 7
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12
4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19
5. Conclusion 25
Acknowledgements 26
References 27
AppendixⅠ 28
1． Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.
So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. The concept of intercultural communication
2.1 Literature review
More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.
In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.
In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.
Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.
Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.
Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication
“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.
Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.
2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication
Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]
If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…
Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.
2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school
The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.
Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.
3. A survey based on classroom observations
Survey date: 25/02/2009
Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.
Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. 30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.
The objective of this survey is to investigate:
1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning
2) Current situation of students’ information input.
3.1 The analysis of interviews
Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:
(1) Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;
(2) Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.
(3) Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.
In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).
Table1. Results of the Interview
Positive attitudes Percentage
Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33％ (25/30)
Accumulation of culture 33.33％ (10/30)
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ ( 5/30)
These students’ responses reveal the following information:
Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.
According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire
The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:
1. Strongly Agree (SA) 2. Agree (A) 3. Disagree (D) 4. Strongly Disagree (SD)
According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning 60.29％ 31.65％ 2.04％ 6.02％
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary 17.35％ 69.39％ 13.26％ 0.00％
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning 44.90％ 53.06％ 2.04％ 0.00％
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance 50.00％ 48.98％ 1.02％ 0.00％
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on 39.80％ 60.20％ 0.00％ 0.00％
Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.
3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire
With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to
have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire
Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview
(open-ended) Questionnaire
(close-ended)
Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88％ 91.94％
Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33％ 98.98％
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ 97.96％
From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)
This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.
1) Integrative motivation
Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.
.2) Instrumental Motivation
In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.
Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29％ 61.22％ 21.43％ 3.06％
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43％ 66.33％ 11.22％ 1.02％
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills 2.04％ 7.14％ 71.43％ 19.39％
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51％ 63.27％ 9.18％ 2.04％
As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.
In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum
It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.
Table5. Courses Information
Course Duration Teacherˊs background
Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese
Communication between cultures the 7th term New Zealander
American literature the 7th term Chinese
An Outline Introduction to Britain and America the 7th term Canadian
Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.
From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.
Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence
Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].
Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:
----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)
----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures
----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)
----Be aware of how they see the target culture
4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.
4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning，not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners
4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness
Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.
Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.
Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.
4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences
There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.
4.2.1.3 The development of empathy
In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.
To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:
(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into
the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.
(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle
school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.
(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they
can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers
Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:
(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.
(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.
(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.
(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.
(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.
(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.
(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.
Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.
For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities， and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.
Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.
As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.
Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.
4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.
(1) Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
(2) Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
(3) Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
(4) Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.
(5) Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.
(6) Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.
5. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.
Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.
And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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AppendixⅠ
*Questionnaire:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on
6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.
誠 信 承 諾
我謹在此承諾：本人所寫的畢業論文《論中學英語口語教學中跨文化交際能力的培養》均系本人獨立完成，沒有抄襲行為，凡涉及其他作者的觀點和材料，均作了注釋，若有不實，后果由本人承擔。
承諾人（簽名）：
一、小學語文閱讀教學中口語交際能力培養的現狀
我國小學語文閱讀教學中主要存在兩個問題：一是教師缺乏培養口語交際能力的意識，認為學生只要學好語文閱讀知識，掌握閱讀技巧就可以，至于口語交際能力的培養則無關緊要，嚴重忽視了口語交際能力的重要性；二是教師重視培養學生的口語交際能力，但是缺乏有效的教學手段來提升學生的交際能力，沒有找到更好的辦法來幫助學生正確理解口語能力的重要性。長此以往，導致學生的交流溝通能力無法得到顯著提高。
二、小學語文閱讀教學中口語交際能力培養的方法
1.增強培養交際能力的意識
教師需要更新教學觀念，轉變傳統的以應試教育為教學目標的觀念，真正重視在閱讀教學中培養學生的口語交際能力。教師在閱讀教學中大幅度減少口語交際的內容，甚至將學生的作業題型集中在字詞和文章方面的理解，完全忽略口語交際的教學。因此，教學需要重新變更教學內容，結合學生的特點和教學大綱的要求，將閱讀教學集中在學生的聽、說、讀、寫等能力方面的提高上，進而培養學生的閱讀素養，特別是在欣賞美文時，要讓學生主動發表自己的觀點，之后教師就其觀點作出正確的評價，提升課堂教學的效率。
2.創造良好的口語交際氛圍
在閱讀教學中，教師要重點培養學生的口語能力，這時就需要學生參與到課堂教學中，積極主動地發表自己的想法，營造一個民主自由的閱讀課堂，消除學生不敢說的心理障礙，鼓勵學生活躍起來，為學生創造更多的發言機會。教師還可以創造良好的教學情境，為學生創造一個良好的對話情境，鍛煉學生的口語能力，有針對性地提升學生的交際水平。
3.注重對語言文字的積累
關鍵詞： 中職語文教學 實踐教學 口語交際能力培養
《中等職業學校語文教學大綱》明確指出：“根據校園生活、社會生活和職業生活確定活動內容……運用有關的語文知識和技能，提高語文應用能力，培養職業理想和職業情感。”因此，在中職語文實踐教學中，教師要從實際出發設計實踐教學內容，以明確的目標作為引導，在活動中滲透聽、說、讀、辯能力的培養。
一、注重突出實踐活動的目標
從中職語文實踐教學的現狀來看，教學中依然存在“完成教學任務”的弊端，教師在組織實踐教學時，沒有突出學生綜合實踐能力的培養，注重形式而忽視學生實踐技能的培養。實踐活動重在對學生聽、說、讀、辯等實踐能力的培養，而這些需要滲透到每一項實踐活動中，因活動目標不明確，很多實踐活動表面上看生動活潑，對學生的實踐能力培養明顯不夠。因此，在中職語文實踐活動中，教師要注重以明確的目標組織活動，針對性地培養學生的實踐能力。
以“名家名篇”專題閱讀實踐活動為例，此類實踐活動首先要激發學生對作家的興趣，然后拓展到作品的閱讀。要激發學生對作家的興趣，那么，作者的生平、生活經歷、小故事、創造歷程等就是學生在閱讀過程中所必須了解的。在了解過程中，教師應以什么樣的方式進行引導呢？以作者的生平為例，是采用影視資料還是文字資料引導學生觀察，或是通過小組合作探究方式引導學生自主選擇自己喜歡的方式，這些都需要教師在實踐教學中做好預設。
口語交際能力的培養不能孤立于聽、讀等活動之外。在上述案例中，教師確定具體的閱讀專題內容后，提出閱讀目標引導學生進行閱讀，閱讀后進行交流，這樣才能讓學生“有話可說，言之有理”。如在“魯迅小說”閱讀專題活動后，教師以“魯迅小說中的人物形象歸類”為活動主題，引導學生在讀的基礎上對魯迅小說中的人物進行歸類，在歸類活動中培養學生的表達能力。
二、關注過程的實施
語文實踐活動的重點是讓學生在實踐過程中親身經歷，強調活動過程中的體驗生成和能力培養。實踐活動以書本知識為基礎，以生活為背景，以動手、動口、動腦等方式讓學生親身體驗和操作，從而讓學生在學中做、做中學、做中用，促進學生在知識與技能，過程與方法，情感態度與價值觀等方面的全面發展。因此，在中職語文實踐活動過程中，教師要注重在活動過程中滲透對學生口語交際能力的培養。
以“求職面試”實踐活動為例，首先教師要組織學生對各類招聘信息進行收集整理，結合自己的專業和職業發展確定準備應聘的職位。在這個過程中，教師可模擬“招聘公司”，引導學生利用網絡、實地考察等對公司和公司所設職位進行了解。然后過渡到招聘活動，這一過程的核心是求職者和招聘者的對話。在對話過程中，教師要注重引導學生及時了解招聘方的需求，結合自己的專業特點，從問候語、對方問題的回答策略等方面進行操練。又如“本土文化研究”的實踐活動中關于“胡同文化”的研究，教師帶領學生以實地考察為基本組織方式，帶領學生游覽、觀看、感受相應的建筑，并通過攝影、攝像、走訪等方式收集相關的民間典故、民俗文化、人文地理、歷史變遷和風土人情等資料，然后在課堂上進行展示，共同對胡同的歷史與文化進行追溯、思考和反問。通過這樣的過程培養學生的觀察能力、資料收集能力、語言表達能力，促進學生綜合能力的培養。
三、整合聽、說、讀、辯等能力
口語交際能力和聽、說、讀、辯等能力是相互作用的，傾聽是說的基礎，讀可較好地豐富表達內容，辯則可讓表達更加具有邏輯性。但在中職語文實踐教學中，教師只注重對學生說能力的培養，而忽視將幾者結合起來，從而導致口語交際能力發展受阻。
首先，要注重將傾聽和表達結合起來。無論是影視評論，還是舉行會議，學生在活動中首先要學會傾聽對方（或所提供材料）的主要觀點，然后發表自己的觀點，忽視了聽，說就會顯得空洞。要將二者有機結合，在實踐活動中，教師不僅要從傾聽的方法上引導學生，還要注重培養學生傾聽的習慣。其次，要注重將讀和說結合起來。表達過程是主體根據自己的已有經驗和對材料（對方的言語）的理解而表達出自己的觀點的過程。故而要提高學生的表達能力，實踐教學中不僅要注重引導學生多讀優秀文學作品，還要注重引導學生觀察生活，從生活中汲取表達素材。最后，要注重將說和辯結合。要讓學生在說的過程中做到條理清楚就必須掌握辯論方法。在語文實踐教學中，教師可結合具體教學內容，引導學生從材料或情境出發，先分析材料或語境中的觀點，然后尋找與之相對應的觀點，進行辯論。
總之，在中職語文實踐教學中，教師要注重從實際出發，關注學生實踐能力的培養，在實踐活動中以明確的目標為指導，滲透聽、說、讀、辯能力的培養，這樣才能有效促進學生口語交際能力的提高。
參考文獻：
[1]何美金.中職生語文口語交際能力的培養[J].廈門教育學院學報，2009（03）.
[2]左達.試論中職語文教學中學生口語交際能力的培養[J].科教導刊，2010（27）.
關鍵詞：小學;低年級;語文教學;口語交際能力;培養策略
一、小學低年級語文教學中口語交際能力培養現狀
（一）師生都不具備正確的口語交際能力培養觀念
在2011年版的語文課程標準中就確立了交際教學的總目標，但是實際情況卻是小學生的口語交際能力培養并沒有取得明顯的效果。這是因為通常情況下，小學語文考試試卷上都不會直接出現和口語交際方面相關的內容，因此教師會將大量的時間安排給考試內容的學習，口語交際的教學基本上形同虛設。另外，還有部分教師偏面的認為口語交際訓練是要在專門的口語交際課上進行，閱讀教學的重點應該是字詞的講解和文章的理解。所以，我們急需更新口語交際能力的培養觀念。
（二）關于口語交際能力的培養不具備有效的手段
怎樣在閱讀的課堂上對學生進行口語交際訓練是現在許多教師都在思考的問題，在小學語文閱讀教學中，教師通常都會運用朗讀、復述等的方式訓練學生的口語交際能力。雖然說這樣的方式可以達到訓練學生聽說能力的目的，但是此方式并不適用，交際性不強。究其根本，還是因為大部分教師對訓練口語交際的方式并不了解，更不用談及其使用情況，這成為導致學生對口語交際缺乏興趣的重要原因之一。
（三）缺乏行之有效的評r
對于口語交際評價，2011版語文課程標準中已有過規定，需要注重提升學生對口語交際的認識與表達溝通的水平，考察口語交際水平的基本項目包括即席講話、主題演講以及問題討論等。但是，就目前而言，小學語文考試中只是比較注重對字音字形的掌握、閱讀理解能力和寫作能力等的考察，對口語交際能力的評價通常都比較隨意，很缺乏一定標準的口頭評價。這是因為大部分的教師都認為這項能力考試中不考，而且學生的母語就是漢語，不用費神去學，實際教學中教師怕教、學生厭學的現象很明顯。
二、小學低年級語文教學中口語交際能力培養策略
（一）轉變觀念，重視閱讀教學中口語交際能力的培養
1.一定要轉變為考試而教的觀念。“看拼音寫詞語”、“寫出近義詞反義詞”、“閱讀理解”等是小學語文試卷中常見的題型，因為試題中重點考查的是字形、字音、字義的掌握和對句子、文章的理解，所以通常情況下都不會直接出現考查口語交際方面的內容。所以，教師在閱讀教學過程中會下意識地大幅度縮減口語交際訓練的內容，甚至有的教師會將焦點全部放在字詞的講解和文章的理解上，基本上對口語交際教學保持的是忽略的態度。
2.改變之前分模塊教學的觀念。在小學語文教材中，每個單元的《語文園地》中都有專門的“口語交際”內容，這導致不少語文教師都認為口語交際訓練只是局限在口語交際課上，和閱讀教學沒有什么密切的聯系。因此，在語文閱讀教學中經常可以出現這樣的情況：教師僅僅關注詞語、句子的講解和段落大意以及中心思想的歸納，通常情況下是教師講得繪聲繪色，學生卻聽得無精打采，總結整個閱讀教學過程即教師單方面在唱著“獨角戲”。這樣的教學觀念是不可取的。在語文閱讀教學中，教師要積極引導學生認真思考問題，而且還要給他們營造相互交流、討論的環境，鼓勵學生提出自己的想法。學生在討論交流、提出觀點的過程中口語交際能力也能得到充分的鍛煉。
（二）探索并豐富口語交際能力培養的途徑
1.情景對話、表演。小學語文教材中有許多的對話內容，因為教材中收集的都是童真童趣的文章，無論是童話還是寓言故事都是有人物或者是擬人化的角色活動的。教師可以依托文本，創設出情境，讓學生扮演其中的角色，分小組進行模擬對話訓練，確保學生能夠在模擬對話的過程中，受到典范語言的影響。長期堅持下去，可以幫助學生實現語言的感悟、內化和遷移，自身的語言感知和運用能力也可以增強。
2.討論辯論。教師在小學語文閱讀教學中要巧設“討論環節”，鼓勵發言者要將自己的個人觀點清晰地呈現給小組的其他成員，小組的剩余成員還可以在發言者闡述觀點的基礎上提出自己的看法和觀點，無論是贊成的還是反對的都能促進學生的進步，循序漸進，不斷增強學生的口語交際能力。
（三）采取有效的評價措施
運用筆試法和口試法相結合的方式。為了更好地保證小學語文閱讀教學中口語交際能力培養的全面真實進行，我們可以在教學中采用筆試法和口試法相結合的方式，確保我們的評價能夠起到其本該有的作用。對于筆試的設計，首先可以引起師生對口語交際訓練的重視，下意識地在教學中增加口語交際訓練的比重;其次，可以從知識和技能的角度對學生的口語交際水平進行考查。口試主要是對學生基本傾聽、表達和交流能力的考察，方式比較多，常見的有問答法、復述法、看圖說話等等，通過這些方法教師可以當面對學生的口語交際水平進行考查。
參考文獻：
